Contents of /trunk/mkinitrd-magellan/klibc/usr/dash/TOUR

#	@(#)TOUR	8.1 (Berkeley) 5/31/93

NOTE -- This is the original TOUR paper distributed with ash and
does not represent the current state of the shell.  It is provided anyway
since it provides helpful information for how the shell is structured,
but be warned that things have changed -- the current shell is
still under development.

================================================================

                       A Tour through Ash

               Copyright 1989 by Kenneth Almquist.


DIRECTORIES:  The subdirectory bltin contains commands which can
be compiled stand-alone.  The rest of the source is in the main
ash directory.

SOURCE CODE GENERATORS:  Files whose names begin with "mk" are
programs that generate source code.  A complete list of these
programs is:

        program         intput files        generates
        -------         ------------        ---------
        mkbuiltins      builtins            builtins.h builtins.c
        mkinit          *.c                 init.c
        mknodes         nodetypes           nodes.h nodes.c
        mksignames          -               signames.h signames.c
        mksyntax            -               syntax.h syntax.c
        mktokens            -               token.h
        bltin/mkexpr    unary_op binary_op  operators.h operators.c

There are undoubtedly too many of these.  Mkinit searches all the
C source files for entries looking like:

        INIT {
              x = 1;    /* executed during initialization */
        }

        RESET {
              x = 2;    /* executed when the shell does a longjmp
                           back to the main command loop */
        }

        SHELLPROC {
              x = 3;    /* executed when the shell runs a shell procedure */
        }

It pulls this code out into routines which are when particular
events occur.  The intent is to improve modularity by isolating
the information about which modules need to be explicitly
initialized/reset within the modules themselves.

Mkinit recognizes several constructs for placing declarations in
the init.c file.
        INCLUDE "file.h"
includes a file.  The storage class MKINIT makes a declaration
available in the init.c file, for example:
        MKINIT int funcnest;    /* depth of function calls */
MKINIT alone on a line introduces a structure or union declara-
tion:
        MKINIT
        struct redirtab {
              short renamed[10];
        };
Preprocessor #define statements are copied to init.c without any
special action to request this.

INDENTATION:  The ash source is indented in multiples of six
spaces.  The only study that I have heard of on the subject con-
cluded that the optimal amount to indent is in the range of four
to six spaces.  I use six spaces since it is not too big a jump
from the widely used eight spaces.  If you really hate six space
indentation, use the adjind (source included) program to change
it to something else.

EXCEPTIONS:  Code for dealing with exceptions appears in
exceptions.c.  The C language doesn't include exception handling,
so I implement it using setjmp and longjmp.  The global variable
exception contains the type of exception.  EXERROR is raised by
calling error.  EXINT is an interrupt.  EXSHELLPROC is an excep-
tion which is raised when a shell procedure is invoked.  The pur-
pose of EXSHELLPROC is to perform the cleanup actions associated
with other exceptions.  After these cleanup actions, the shell
can interpret a shell procedure itself without exec'ing a new
copy of the shell.

INTERRUPTS:  In an interactive shell, an interrupt will cause an
EXINT exception to return to the main command loop.  (Exception:
EXINT is not raised if the user traps interrupts using the trap
command.)  The INTOFF and INTON macros (defined in exception.h)
provide uninterruptable critical sections.  Between the execution
of INTOFF and the execution of INTON, interrupt signals will be
held for later delivery.  INTOFF and INTON can be nested.

MEMALLOC.C:  Memalloc.c defines versions of malloc and realloc
which call error when there is no memory left.  It also defines a
stack oriented memory allocation scheme.  Allocating off a stack
is probably more efficient than allocation using malloc, but the
big advantage is that when an exception occurs all we have to do
to free up the memory in use at the time of the exception is to
restore the stack pointer.  The stack is implemented using a
linked list of blocks.

STPUTC:  If the stack were contiguous, it would be easy to store
strings on the stack without knowing in advance how long the
string was going to be:
        p = stackptr;
        *p++ = c;       /* repeated as many times as needed */
        stackptr = p;
The folloing three macros (defined in memalloc.h) perform these
operations, but grow the stack if you run off the end:
        STARTSTACKSTR(p);
        STPUTC(c, p);   /* repeated as many times as needed */
        grabstackstr(p);

We now start a top-down look at the code:

MAIN.C:  The main routine performs some initialization, executes
the user's profile if necessary, and calls cmdloop.  Cmdloop is
repeatedly parses and executes commands.

OPTIONS.C:  This file contains the option processing code.  It is
called from main to parse the shell arguments when the shell is
invoked, and it also contains the set builtin.  The -i and -j op-
tions (the latter turns on job control) require changes in signal
handling.  The routines setjobctl (in jobs.c) and setinteractive
(in trap.c) are called to handle changes to these options.

PARSING:  The parser code is all in parser.c.  A recursive des-
cent parser is used.  Syntax tables (generated by mksyntax) are
used to classify characters during lexical analysis.  There are
three tables:  one for normal use, one for use when inside single
quotes, and one for use when inside double quotes.  The tables
are machine dependent because they are indexed by character vari-
ables and the range of a char varies from machine to machine.

PARSE OUTPUT:  The output of the parser consists of a tree of
nodes.  The various types of nodes are defined in the file node-
types.

Nodes of type NARG are used to represent both words and the con-
tents of here documents.  An early version of ash kept the con-
tents of here documents in temporary files, but keeping here do-
cuments in memory typically results in significantly better per-
formance.  It would have been nice to make it an option to use
temporary files for here documents, for the benefit of small
machines, but the code to keep track of when to delete the tem-
porary files was complex and I never fixed all the bugs in it.
(AT&T has been maintaining the Bourne shell for more than ten
years, and to the best of my knowledge they still haven't gotten
it to handle temporary files correctly in obscure cases.)

The text field of a NARG structure points to the text of the
word.  The text consists of ordinary characters and a number of
special codes defined in parser.h.  The special codes are:

        CTLVAR              Variable substitution
        CTLENDVAR           End of variable substitution
        CTLBACKQ            Command substitution
        CTLESC              Escape next character

A variable substitution contains the following elements:

        CTLVAR type name '=' [ alternative-text CTLENDVAR ]

The type field is a single character specifying the type of sub-
stitution.  The possible types are:

        VSNORMAL            $var
        VSMINUS             ${var-text}
        VSMINUS|VSNUL       ${var:-text}
        VSPLUS              ${var+text}
        VSPLUS|VSNUL        ${var:+text}
        VSQUESTION          ${var?text}
        VSQUESTION|VSNUL    ${var:?text}
        VSASSIGN            ${var=text}
        VSASSIGN|VSNUL      ${var=text}

The name of the variable comes next, terminated by an equals
sign.  If the type is not VSNORMAL, then the text field in the
substitution follows, terminated by a CTLENDVAR byte.

Commands in back quotes are parsed and stored in a linked list.
The locations of these commands in the string are indicated by
the CTLBACKQ character.

The character CTLESC escapes the next character, so that in case
any of the CTL characters mentioned above appear in the input,
they can be passed through transparently.  CTLESC is also used to
escape '*', '?', '[', and '!' characters which were quoted by the
user and thus should not be used for file name generation.

CTLESC characters have proved to be particularly tricky to get
right.  In the case of here documents which are not subject to
variable and command substitution, the parser doesn't insert any
CTLESC characters to begin with (so the contents of the text
field can be written without any processing).  Other here docu-
ments, and words which are not subject to splitting and file name
generation, have the CTLESC characters removed during the vari-
able and command substitution phase.  Words which are subject
splitting and file name generation have the CTLESC characters re-
moved as part of the file name phase.

EXECUTION:  Command execution is handled by the following files:
        eval.c     The top level routines.
        redir.c    Code to handle redirection of input and output.
        jobs.c     Code to handle forking, waiting, and job control.
        exec.c     Code to to path searches and the actual exec sys call.
        expand.c   Code to evaluate arguments.
        var.c      Maintains the variable symbol table.  Called from expand.c.

EVAL.C:  Evaltree recursively executes a parse tree.  The exit
status is returned in the global variable exitstatus.  The alter-
native entry evalbackcmd is called to evaluate commands in back
quotes.  It saves the result in memory if the command is a buil-
tin; otherwise it forks off a child to execute the command and
connects the standard output of the child to a pipe.

JOBS.C:  To create a process, you call makejob to return a job
structure, and then call forkshell (passing the job structure as
an argument) to create the process.  Waitforjob waits for a job
to complete.  These routines take care of process groups if job
control is defined.

REDIR.C:  Ash allows file descriptors to be redirected and then
restored without forking off a child process.  This is accom-
plished by duplicating the original file descriptors.  The redir-
tab structure records where the file descriptors have be dupli-
cated to.

EXEC.C:  The routine find_command locates a command, and enters
the command in the hash table if it is not already there.  The
third argument specifies whether it is to print an error message
if the command is not found.  (When a pipeline is set up,
find_command is called for all the commands in the pipeline be-
fore any forking is done, so to get the commands into the hash
table of the parent process.  But to make command hashing as
transparent as possible, we silently ignore errors at that point
and only print error messages if the command cannot be found
later.)

The routine shellexec is the interface to the exec system call.

EXPAND.C:  Arguments are processed in three passes.  The first
(performed by the routine argstr) performs variable and command
substitution.  The second (ifsbreakup) performs word splitting
and the third (expandmeta) performs file name generation.  If the
"/u" directory is simulated, then when "/u/username" is replaced
by the user's home directory, the flag "didudir" is set.  This
tells the cd command that it should print out the directory name,
just as it would if the "/u" directory were implemented using
symbolic links.

VAR.C:  Variables are stored in a hash table.  Probably we should
switch to extensible hashing.  The variable name is stored in the
same string as the value (using the format "name=value") so that
no string copying is needed to create the environment of a com-
mand.  Variables which the shell references internally are preal-
located so that the shell can reference the values of these vari-
ables without doing a lookup.

When a program is run, the code in eval.c sticks any environment
variables which precede the command (as in "PATH=xxx command") in
the variable table as the simplest way to strip duplicates, and
then calls "environment" to get the value of the environment.
There are two consequences of this.  First, if an assignment to
PATH precedes the command, the value of PATH before the assign-
ment must be remembered and passed to shellexec.  Second, if the
program turns out to be a shell procedure, the strings from the
environment variables which preceded the command must be pulled
out of the table and replaced with strings obtained from malloc,
since the former will automatically be freed when the stack (see
the entry on memalloc.c) is emptied.

BUILTIN COMMANDS:  The procedures for handling these are scat-
tered throughout the code, depending on which location appears
most appropriate.  They can be recognized because their names al-
ways end in "cmd".  The mapping from names to procedures is
specified in the file builtins, which is processed by the mkbuil-
tins command.

A builtin command is invoked with argc and argv set up like a
normal program.  A builtin command is allowed to overwrite its
arguments.  Builtin routines can call nextopt to do option pars-
ing.  This is kind of like getopt, but you don't pass argc and
argv to it.  Builtin routines can also call error.  This routine
normally terminates the shell (or returns to the main command
loop if the shell is interactive), but when called from a builtin
command it causes the builtin command to terminate with an exit
status of 2.

The directory bltins contains commands which can be compiled in-
dependently but can also be built into the shell for efficiency
reasons.  The makefile in this directory compiles these programs
in the normal fashion (so that they can be run regardless of
whether the invoker is ash), but also creates a library named
bltinlib.a which can be linked with ash.  The header file bltin.h
takes care of most of the differences between the ash and the
stand-alone environment.  The user should call the main routine
"main", and #define main to be the name of the routine to use
when the program is linked into ash.  This #define should appear
before bltin.h is included; bltin.h will #undef main if the pro-
gram is to be compiled stand-alone.

CD.C:  This file defines the cd and pwd builtins.  The pwd com-
mand runs /bin/pwd the first time it is invoked (unless the user
has already done a cd to an absolute pathname), but then
remembers the current directory and updates it when the cd com-
mand is run, so subsequent pwd commands run very fast.  The main
complication in the cd command is in the docd command, which
resolves symbolic links into actual names and informs the user
where the user ended up if he crossed a symbolic link.

SIGNALS:  Trap.c implements the trap command.  The routine set-
signal figures out what action should be taken when a signal is
received and invokes the signal system call to set the signal ac-
tion appropriately.  When a signal that a user has set a trap for
is caught, the routine "onsig" sets a flag.  The routine dotrap
is called at appropriate points to actually handle the signal.
When an interrupt is caught and no trap has been set for that
signal, the routine "onint" in error.c is called.

OUTPUT:  Ash uses it's own output routines.  There are three out-
put structures allocated.  "Output" represents the standard out-
put, "errout" the standard error, and "memout" contains output
which is to be stored in memory.  This last is used when a buil-
tin command appears in backquotes, to allow its output to be col-
lected without doing any I/O through the UNIX operating system.
The variables out1 and out2 normally point to output and errout,
respectively, but they are set to point to memout when appropri-
ate inside backquotes.

INPUT:  The basic input routine is pgetc, which reads from the
current input file.  There is a stack of input files; the current
input file is the top file on this stack.  The code allows the
input to come from a string rather than a file.  (This is for the
-c option and the "." and eval builtin commands.)  The global
variable plinno is saved and restored when files are pushed and
popped from the stack.  The parser routines store the number of
the current line in this variable.

DEBUGGING:  If DEBUG is defined in shell.h, then the shell will
write debugging information to the file $HOME/trace.  Most of
this is done using the TRACE macro, which takes a set of printf
arguments inside two sets of parenthesis.  Example:
"TRACE(("n=%d0, n))".  The double parenthesis are necessary be-
cause the preprocessor can't handle functions with a variable
number of arguments.  Defining DEBUG also causes the shell to
generate a core dump if it is sent a quit signal.  The tracing
code is in show.c.
1	# @(#)TOUR 8.1 (Berkeley) 5/31/93
2
3	NOTE -- This is the original TOUR paper distributed with ash and
4	does not represent the current state of the shell. It is provided anyway
5	since it provides helpful information for how the shell is structured,
6	but be warned that things have changed -- the current shell is
7	still under development.
8
9	================================================================
10
11	A Tour through Ash
12
13	Copyright 1989 by Kenneth Almquist.
14
15
16	DIRECTORIES: The subdirectory bltin contains commands which can
17	be compiled stand-alone. The rest of the source is in the main
18	ash directory.
19
20	SOURCE CODE GENERATORS: Files whose names begin with "mk" are
21	programs that generate source code. A complete list of these
22	programs is:
23
24	program intput files generates
25	------- ------------ ---------
26	mkbuiltins builtins builtins.h builtins.c
27	mkinit *.c init.c
28	mknodes nodetypes nodes.h nodes.c
29	mksignames - signames.h signames.c
30	mksyntax - syntax.h syntax.c
31	mktokens - token.h
32	bltin/mkexpr unary_op binary_op operators.h operators.c
33
34	There are undoubtedly too many of these. Mkinit searches all the
35	C source files for entries looking like:
36
37	INIT {
38	x = 1; /* executed during initialization */
39	}
40
41	RESET {
42	x = 2; /* executed when the shell does a longjmp
43	back to the main command loop */
44	}
45
46	SHELLPROC {
47	x = 3; /* executed when the shell runs a shell procedure */
48	}
49
50	It pulls this code out into routines which are when particular
51	events occur. The intent is to improve modularity by isolating
52	the information about which modules need to be explicitly
53	initialized/reset within the modules themselves.
54
55	Mkinit recognizes several constructs for placing declarations in
56	the init.c file.
57	INCLUDE "file.h"
58	includes a file. The storage class MKINIT makes a declaration
59	available in the init.c file, for example:
60	MKINIT int funcnest; /* depth of function calls */
61	MKINIT alone on a line introduces a structure or union declara-
62	tion:
63	MKINIT
64	struct redirtab {
65	short renamed[10];
66	};
67	Preprocessor #define statements are copied to init.c without any
68	special action to request this.
69
70	INDENTATION: The ash source is indented in multiples of six
71	spaces. The only study that I have heard of on the subject con-
72	cluded that the optimal amount to indent is in the range of four
73	to six spaces. I use six spaces since it is not too big a jump
74	from the widely used eight spaces. If you really hate six space
75	indentation, use the adjind (source included) program to change
76	it to something else.
77
78	EXCEPTIONS: Code for dealing with exceptions appears in
79	exceptions.c. The C language doesn't include exception handling,
80	so I implement it using setjmp and longjmp. The global variable
81	exception contains the type of exception. EXERROR is raised by
82	calling error. EXINT is an interrupt. EXSHELLPROC is an excep-
83	tion which is raised when a shell procedure is invoked. The pur-
84	pose of EXSHELLPROC is to perform the cleanup actions associated
85	with other exceptions. After these cleanup actions, the shell
86	can interpret a shell procedure itself without exec'ing a new
87	copy of the shell.
88
89	INTERRUPTS: In an interactive shell, an interrupt will cause an
90	EXINT exception to return to the main command loop. (Exception:
91	EXINT is not raised if the user traps interrupts using the trap
92	command.) The INTOFF and INTON macros (defined in exception.h)
93	provide uninterruptable critical sections. Between the execution
94	of INTOFF and the execution of INTON, interrupt signals will be
95	held for later delivery. INTOFF and INTON can be nested.
96
97	MEMALLOC.C: Memalloc.c defines versions of malloc and realloc
98	which call error when there is no memory left. It also defines a
99	stack oriented memory allocation scheme. Allocating off a stack
100	is probably more efficient than allocation using malloc, but the
101	big advantage is that when an exception occurs all we have to do
102	to free up the memory in use at the time of the exception is to
103	restore the stack pointer. The stack is implemented using a
104	linked list of blocks.
105
106	STPUTC: If the stack were contiguous, it would be easy to store
107	strings on the stack without knowing in advance how long the
108	string was going to be:
109	p = stackptr;
110	p++ = c; / repeated as many times as needed */
111	stackptr = p;
112	The folloing three macros (defined in memalloc.h) perform these
113	operations, but grow the stack if you run off the end:
114	STARTSTACKSTR(p);
115	STPUTC(c, p); /* repeated as many times as needed */
116	grabstackstr(p);
117
118	We now start a top-down look at the code:
119
120	MAIN.C: The main routine performs some initialization, executes
121	the user's profile if necessary, and calls cmdloop. Cmdloop is
122	repeatedly parses and executes commands.
123
124	OPTIONS.C: This file contains the option processing code. It is
125	called from main to parse the shell arguments when the shell is
126	invoked, and it also contains the set builtin. The -i and -j op-
127	tions (the latter turns on job control) require changes in signal
128	handling. The routines setjobctl (in jobs.c) and setinteractive
129	(in trap.c) are called to handle changes to these options.
130
131	PARSING: The parser code is all in parser.c. A recursive des-
132	cent parser is used. Syntax tables (generated by mksyntax) are
133	used to classify characters during lexical analysis. There are
134	three tables: one for normal use, one for use when inside single
135	quotes, and one for use when inside double quotes. The tables
136	are machine dependent because they are indexed by character vari-
137	ables and the range of a char varies from machine to machine.
138
139	PARSE OUTPUT: The output of the parser consists of a tree of
140	nodes. The various types of nodes are defined in the file node-
141	types.
142
143	Nodes of type NARG are used to represent both words and the con-
144	tents of here documents. An early version of ash kept the con-
145	tents of here documents in temporary files, but keeping here do-
146	cuments in memory typically results in significantly better per-
147	formance. It would have been nice to make it an option to use
148	temporary files for here documents, for the benefit of small
149	machines, but the code to keep track of when to delete the tem-
150	porary files was complex and I never fixed all the bugs in it.
151	(AT&T has been maintaining the Bourne shell for more than ten
152	years, and to the best of my knowledge they still haven't gotten
153	it to handle temporary files correctly in obscure cases.)
154
155	The text field of a NARG structure points to the text of the
156	word. The text consists of ordinary characters and a number of
157	special codes defined in parser.h. The special codes are:
158
159	CTLVAR Variable substitution
160	CTLENDVAR End of variable substitution
161	CTLBACKQ Command substitution
162	CTLESC Escape next character
163
164	A variable substitution contains the following elements:
165
166	CTLVAR type name '=' [ alternative-text CTLENDVAR ]
167
168	The type field is a single character specifying the type of sub-
169	stitution. The possible types are:
170
171	VSNORMAL $var
172	VSMINUS ${var-text}
173	VSMINUS\|VSNUL ${var:-text}
174	VSPLUS ${var+text}
175	VSPLUS\|VSNUL ${var:+text}
176	VSQUESTION ${var?text}
177	VSQUESTION\|VSNUL ${var:?text}
178	VSASSIGN ${var=text}
179	VSASSIGN\|VSNUL ${var=text}
180
181	The name of the variable comes next, terminated by an equals
182	sign. If the type is not VSNORMAL, then the text field in the
183	substitution follows, terminated by a CTLENDVAR byte.
184
185	Commands in back quotes are parsed and stored in a linked list.
186	The locations of these commands in the string are indicated by
187	the CTLBACKQ character.
188
189	The character CTLESC escapes the next character, so that in case
190	any of the CTL characters mentioned above appear in the input,
191	they can be passed through transparently. CTLESC is also used to
192	escape '*', '?', '[', and '!' characters which were quoted by the
193	user and thus should not be used for file name generation.
194
195	CTLESC characters have proved to be particularly tricky to get
196	right. In the case of here documents which are not subject to
197	variable and command substitution, the parser doesn't insert any
198	CTLESC characters to begin with (so the contents of the text
199	field can be written without any processing). Other here docu-
200	ments, and words which are not subject to splitting and file name
201	generation, have the CTLESC characters removed during the vari-
202	able and command substitution phase. Words which are subject
203	splitting and file name generation have the CTLESC characters re-
204	moved as part of the file name phase.
205
206	EXECUTION: Command execution is handled by the following files:
207	eval.c The top level routines.
208	redir.c Code to handle redirection of input and output.
209	jobs.c Code to handle forking, waiting, and job control.
210	exec.c Code to to path searches and the actual exec sys call.
211	expand.c Code to evaluate arguments.
212	var.c Maintains the variable symbol table. Called from expand.c.
213
214	EVAL.C: Evaltree recursively executes a parse tree. The exit
215	status is returned in the global variable exitstatus. The alter-
216	native entry evalbackcmd is called to evaluate commands in back
217	quotes. It saves the result in memory if the command is a buil-
218	tin; otherwise it forks off a child to execute the command and
219	connects the standard output of the child to a pipe.
220
221	JOBS.C: To create a process, you call makejob to return a job
222	structure, and then call forkshell (passing the job structure as
223	an argument) to create the process. Waitforjob waits for a job
224	to complete. These routines take care of process groups if job
225	control is defined.
226
227	REDIR.C: Ash allows file descriptors to be redirected and then
228	restored without forking off a child process. This is accom-
229	plished by duplicating the original file descriptors. The redir-
230	tab structure records where the file descriptors have be dupli-
231	cated to.
232
233	EXEC.C: The routine find_command locates a command, and enters
234	the command in the hash table if it is not already there. The
235	third argument specifies whether it is to print an error message
236	if the command is not found. (When a pipeline is set up,
237	find_command is called for all the commands in the pipeline be-
238	fore any forking is done, so to get the commands into the hash
239	table of the parent process. But to make command hashing as
240	transparent as possible, we silently ignore errors at that point
241	and only print error messages if the command cannot be found
242	later.)
243
244	The routine shellexec is the interface to the exec system call.
245
246	EXPAND.C: Arguments are processed in three passes. The first
247	(performed by the routine argstr) performs variable and command
248	substitution. The second (ifsbreakup) performs word splitting
249	and the third (expandmeta) performs file name generation. If the
250	"/u" directory is simulated, then when "/u/username" is replaced
251	by the user's home directory, the flag "didudir" is set. This
252	tells the cd command that it should print out the directory name,
253	just as it would if the "/u" directory were implemented using
254	symbolic links.
255
256	VAR.C: Variables are stored in a hash table. Probably we should
257	switch to extensible hashing. The variable name is stored in the
258	same string as the value (using the format "name=value") so that
259	no string copying is needed to create the environment of a com-
260	mand. Variables which the shell references internally are preal-
261	located so that the shell can reference the values of these vari-
262	ables without doing a lookup.
263
264	When a program is run, the code in eval.c sticks any environment
265	variables which precede the command (as in "PATH=xxx command") in
266	the variable table as the simplest way to strip duplicates, and
267	then calls "environment" to get the value of the environment.
268	There are two consequences of this. First, if an assignment to
269	PATH precedes the command, the value of PATH before the assign-
270	ment must be remembered and passed to shellexec. Second, if the
271	program turns out to be a shell procedure, the strings from the
272	environment variables which preceded the command must be pulled
273	out of the table and replaced with strings obtained from malloc,
274	since the former will automatically be freed when the stack (see
275	the entry on memalloc.c) is emptied.
276
277	BUILTIN COMMANDS: The procedures for handling these are scat-
278	tered throughout the code, depending on which location appears
279	most appropriate. They can be recognized because their names al-
280	ways end in "cmd". The mapping from names to procedures is
281	specified in the file builtins, which is processed by the mkbuil-
282	tins command.
283
284	A builtin command is invoked with argc and argv set up like a
285	normal program. A builtin command is allowed to overwrite its
286	arguments. Builtin routines can call nextopt to do option pars-
287	ing. This is kind of like getopt, but you don't pass argc and
288	argv to it. Builtin routines can also call error. This routine
289	normally terminates the shell (or returns to the main command
290	loop if the shell is interactive), but when called from a builtin
291	command it causes the builtin command to terminate with an exit
292	status of 2.
293
294	The directory bltins contains commands which can be compiled in-
295	dependently but can also be built into the shell for efficiency
296	reasons. The makefile in this directory compiles these programs
297	in the normal fashion (so that they can be run regardless of
298	whether the invoker is ash), but also creates a library named
299	bltinlib.a which can be linked with ash. The header file bltin.h
300	takes care of most of the differences between the ash and the
301	stand-alone environment. The user should call the main routine
302	"main", and #define main to be the name of the routine to use
303	when the program is linked into ash. This #define should appear
304	before bltin.h is included; bltin.h will #undef main if the pro-
305	gram is to be compiled stand-alone.
306
307	CD.C: This file defines the cd and pwd builtins. The pwd com-
308	mand runs /bin/pwd the first time it is invoked (unless the user
309	has already done a cd to an absolute pathname), but then
310	remembers the current directory and updates it when the cd com-
311	mand is run, so subsequent pwd commands run very fast. The main
312	complication in the cd command is in the docd command, which
313	resolves symbolic links into actual names and informs the user
314	where the user ended up if he crossed a symbolic link.
315
316	SIGNALS: Trap.c implements the trap command. The routine set-
317	signal figures out what action should be taken when a signal is
318	received and invokes the signal system call to set the signal ac-
319	tion appropriately. When a signal that a user has set a trap for
320	is caught, the routine "onsig" sets a flag. The routine dotrap
321	is called at appropriate points to actually handle the signal.
322	When an interrupt is caught and no trap has been set for that
323	signal, the routine "onint" in error.c is called.
324
325	OUTPUT: Ash uses it's own output routines. There are three out-
326	put structures allocated. "Output" represents the standard out-
327	put, "errout" the standard error, and "memout" contains output
328	which is to be stored in memory. This last is used when a buil-
329	tin command appears in backquotes, to allow its output to be col-
330	lected without doing any I/O through the UNIX operating system.
331	The variables out1 and out2 normally point to output and errout,
332	respectively, but they are set to point to memout when appropri-
333	ate inside backquotes.
334
335	INPUT: The basic input routine is pgetc, which reads from the
336	current input file. There is a stack of input files; the current
337	input file is the top file on this stack. The code allows the
338	input to come from a string rather than a file. (This is for the
339	-c option and the "." and eval builtin commands.) The global
340	variable plinno is saved and restored when files are pushed and
341	popped from the stack. The parser routines store the number of
342	the current line in this variable.
343
344	DEBUGGING: If DEBUG is defined in shell.h, then the shell will
345	write debugging information to the file $HOME/trace. Most of
346	this is done using the TRACE macro, which takes a set of printf
347	arguments inside two sets of parenthesis. Example:
348	"TRACE(("n=%d0, n))". The double parenthesis are necessary be-
349	cause the preprocessor can't handle functions with a variable
350	number of arguments. Defining DEBUG also causes the shell to
351	generate a core dump if it is sent a quit signal. The tracing
352	code is in show.c.